It turns out this happens if the following two files get corrupted: dnsapi.dll and dnsrslvr.dll.
It's a simple task to replace these with good copies if you happen to have a Ubuntu LiveUSB and appropriate Windows setup CD on hand. Just boot into the LiveUSB, pop in the Windows CD, make sure the hard disk partition containing Windows is mounted, and do the following:
~$ sudo apt-get install cabextract
~$ rm /media/hdd/Windows/system32/dnsapi.dll
~$ rm /media/hdd/Windows/system32/dnsrslvr.dll
~$ cabextract -d /media/hdd/Windows/system32 /media/cdrom0/i386/dnsapi.dl_
~$ cabextract -d /media/hdd/Windows/system32 /media/cdrom0/i386/dnsrslvr.dl_
Be sure to replace /media/hdd with the appropriate mount point on your system.
Alternatively, you can boot into Windows Recovery Console to restore the files:
:\> expand d:\i386\dnsapi.dl_ c:\windows\system32\dnsapi.dll
:\> expand d:\i386\dnsrslvr.dl_ c:\windows\system32\dnsrslvr.dll
Here, I'm assuming drive D: is your CD-ROM drive but it could be different depending on your specific system.
Reboot into Windows, and DNS domain name resolution should be back to normal.
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